Oxidative stress in obstetric disorders: mechanisms and clinical implications

Authors

Abstract

Oxidative stress (OS), defined as an imbalance between the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the antioxidant defense system, plays a central role in the pathophysiology of various obstetric disorders. During normal pregnancy, moderate ROS levels are essential for physiological processes such as trophoblast differentiation, angiogenesis, and placental development. However, excessive ROS production or impaired antioxidant capacity disrupts cellular ho- meostasis, leading to endothelial dysfunction, placental insufficiency, and systemic inflammation. Emerging evidence indicates that oxidative stress is a major contributor to the development of preeclampsia, gestational diabetes mellitus, intrauterine growth restriction, and preterm birth. Mitochondrial dysfunction, lipid peroxidation, and the activation of redox-sensitive transcription factors such as NF-κB and Nrf2 further amplify oxidative damage, resulting in adverse maternal and fetal outcomes. Understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying oxidative stress provides valuable insight into potential preventive and therapeutic strategies, including antioxidant supplementation, lifestyle modification, and targeted pharmacological interventions. This review summarizes cur- rent knowledge on the mechanisms of oxidative stress in physiological and pathological pregnancy, highlights its clinical implications, and discusses emerging biomarkers that may aid in early diagnosis and risk stratification of obstetric complications.

Keywords

Introduction

Oxidative stress (OS), defined as an imbalance between the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the antioxidant defense mechanisms, plays a crucial role in the pathophysiology of many human diseases ^{1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11}. During pregnancy, oxidative metabolism intensifies due to the increased oxygen demand of maternal and fetal tissues ¹². Under physiological conditions, moderate levels of ROS are essential for normal cellular signaling, implantation, placental development, and vascular remodeling ¹³. However, excessive ROS generation or impaired antioxidant capacity may disrupt redox homeostasis, leading to oxidative damage of lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids ¹⁴. This redox imbalance has been implicated in a spectrum of obstetric complications, including preeclampsia, gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR), preterm birth, and recurrent pregnancy loss ^{15,16,17,18,19}.
The placenta, as the central organ of maternal-fetal exchange, is a major site of oxidative activity during gestation ²⁰. Placental ischemia, reperfusion injury, and inflammation can promote excessive ROS production, triggering endothelial dysfunction and systemic inflammatory responses ²¹. In preeclampsia, for instance, defective trophoblastic invasion and abnormal spiral artery remodeling result in placental hypoxia, which amplifies OS and contributes to hypertension and multiorgan involvement ²². Similarly, in GDM and IUGR, OS alters placental signaling pathways, impairs nutrient transport, and affects fetal growth and development ²³.
Understanding the molecular mechanisms linking OS to obstetric disorders provides valuable insights into disease pathogenesis and may guide the development of predictive biomarkers and therapeutic strategies ²⁴. Recent advances in redox biology and molecular medicine have identified several OS–related biomarkers, such as malondialdehyde (MDA), total antioxidant status (TAS), total oxidant status (TOS), and oxidative stress index (OSI), which have shown promise in evaluating oxidative balance during pregnancy ^24,25. Furthermore, emerging evidence suggests that modulation of oxidative pathways through antioxidant therapy or lifestyle interventions could improve maternal and perinatal outcomes ²⁶.
This review aims to summarize current evidence on the mechanisms of OS in major obstetric disorders and to discuss its clinical implications, focusing on diagnostic potential, preventive approaches, and therapeutic perspectives.
Physiological Role of Oxidative Stress in Normal Pregnancy
Oxidative stress (OS), defined as an imbalance between the production of ROS and antioxidant defense mechanisms, is a fundamental physiological phenomenon that plays a dual role during pregnancy ²⁷. While excessive OS is well known for its association with pathological conditions such as preeclampsia, gestational diabetes, and fetal growth restriction, moderate and well-regulated levels of ROS are essential for normal reproductive and placental physiology ²⁸. During healthy gestation, OS functions as a signaling mediator that orchestrates crucial processes, including implantation, placentation, angiogenesis, and fetal development ²⁹.
In early pregnancy, a controlled oxidative environment is vital for successful embryo implantation. The invasion of trophoblast cells into the maternal endometrium and the subsequent remodeling of spiral arteries require transient oxidative bursts that modulate gene expression and cellular differentiation ³⁰. Low oxygen tension during the first trimester maintains cytotrophoblast proliferation and prevents premature villous maturation. As gestation progresses, the establishment of maternal blood flow into the intervillous space increases oxygen availability, leading to a physiological rise in ROS production. This transition from a relatively hypoxic to normoxic environment is critical for placental growth, vascularization, and metabolic adaptation ³¹.
ROS act as secondary messengers that regulate multiple redox- sensitive transcription factors such as nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α) ³². These transcriptional pathways promote cellular antioxidant responses and angiogenic signaling, thereby ensuring placental homeostasis. Furthermore, ROS are involved in steroidogenesis, decidualization, and immune tolerance at the maternal–fetal interface ³³. For example, physiological OS contributes to the balance between pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines, supporting fetal tolerance while maintaining adequate defense mechanisms.
Antioxidant systems, including enzymatic defenses such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase (GPx), as well as non-enzymatic antioxidants like vitamins C and E, act synergistically to counterbalance ROS generation ³⁴. The interplay between oxidative and antioxidative forces ensures redox equilibrium, preventing cellular injury while maintaining the signaling roles of ROS. Mild OS also stimulates mitochondrial biogenesis and enhances cellular resilience, which may provide adaptive benefits during pregnancy’s increased metabolic demands ³⁵.
OS during normal pregnancy is not merely a byproduct of heightened metabolism but a regulated physiological process crucial for maternal and fetal well-being. Proper redox balance supports placental development, vascular remodeling, and fetal growth, whereas disruption of this balance shifts the system toward pathology. Understanding the physiological role of OS in normal gestation provides a foundation for distinguishing adaptive oxidative changes from pathological ones and may guide future research on redox-targeted interventions in obstetric medicine ³⁶.
Oxidative Stress in Pathological Pregnancy Conditions
Pregnancy is characterized by complex metabolic and immunological adaptations that ensure maternal–fetal homeostasis. When oxidative balance is disrupted, excessive production of ROS leads to cellular and molecular damage, contributing to the pathogenesis of several obstetric complications ¹. OS plays a pivotal role in placental dysfunction, endothelial injury, and systemic inflammation, which collectively underlie conditions such as preeclampsia, gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR), preterm birth, and recurrent pregnancy loss ^16,17,37 (Figure 1).
Preeclampsia
Preeclampsia represents one of the most studied disorders associated with OS. The condition is characterized by impaired trophoblast invasion and abnormal remodeling of spiral arteries, leading to placental ischemia and reperfusion injury ³⁸. Hypoxic conditions in the placenta promote mitochondrial ROS generation and activation of NADPH oxidase pathways, resulting in lipid peroxidation, endothelial dysfunction, and systemic inflammatory responses ³⁹. Increased levels of oxidative markers, such as malondialdehyde (MDA) and 8-isoprostane, and decreased antioxidant enzyme activity have been consistently demonstrated in preeclamptic women ⁴⁰. Moreover, oxidative damage to syncytiotrophoblasts triggers the release of inflammatory cytokines and antiangiogenic factors like soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase-1 (sFlt-1), which further exacerbate vascular dysfunction ⁴¹.
Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM)
In GDM, chronic hyperglycemia induces excessive ROS formation through glucose autoxidation, mitochondrial dysfunction, and activation of the polyol pathway ¹⁶. The resulting OS impairs insulin signaling, disrupts endothelial nitric oxide bioavailability, and contributes to placental endothelial damage ⁴². OS in GDM is also linked to altered expression of placental transporters and increased fetal exposure to oxidative damage, potentially predisposing offspring to metabolic diseases later in life.
Intrauterine Growth Restriction (IUGR) and Preterm Birth IUGR and preterm birth are often consequences of impaired placental perfusion and hypoxia–reoxygenation injury ⁴³. In IUGR, reduced uteroplacental blood flow leads to accumulation of ROS, mitochondrial dysfunction, and apoptosis of trophoblastic cells. Elevated OS in preterm labor has been associated with premature senescence of fetal membranes, inflammation, and upregulation of matrix metalloproteinases that weaken the amniotic sac ⁴⁴.
Recurrent Pregnancy Loss (RPL)
Recurrent pregnancy loss is another condition where OS has been implicated. Excessive ROS generation in the endometrium and placenta can lead to DNA fragmentation, lipid peroxidation, and altered immune tolerance, compromising embryo implantation ¹⁹. Reduced antioxidant enzyme activities, including superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx), have been observed in women with idiopathic recurrent miscarriage ⁴⁵. These findings highlight that maintaining redox homeostasis is critical for early embryonic survival and proper placental development.
OS constitutes a unifying molecular mechanism in the development of pathological pregnancy conditions. It acts through mitochondrial dysfunction, endothelial injury, and inflammatory cascades, ultimately impairing maternal and fetal outcomes. Understanding these mechanisms provides opportunities for targeted antioxidant therapies, biomarker development, and preventive strategies in high-risk pregnancies. Future Directions
OS is increasingly recognized as a central contributor to the pathophysiology of obstetric disorders, including pre-eclampsia, gestational diabetes mellitus, fetal growth restriction, and recurrent pregnancy loss. Despite significant progress in elucidating the underlying molecular mechanisms, the translation of these insights into effective clinical interventions remains limited. Future research must therefore address several critical gaps to improve maternal and fetal outcomes.
A key priority is the standardization and validation of OS biomarkers. Current studies employ a wide array of markers, such as malondialdehyde, 8-hydroxy-2′-deoxyguanosine, and isoprostanes, yet measurement techniques, gestational reference ranges, and threshold values vary considerably. Establishing uniform protocols for sample collection, processing, and analysis, along with gestational age-specific normative data, will be essential to enable reliable risk stratification and early identification of high-risk pregnancies.
Another important area involves optimizing antioxidant-based interventions. While supplementation with vitamins C and E, selenium, or folate has been investigated, clinical trials have yielded inconsistent outcomes. Future studies should define the optimal timing, dosage, and target populations for such interventions, focusing on early gestational windows and stratifying participants according to baseline oxidative status. Well-designed, adequately powered randomized controlled trials with meaningful maternal and fetal endpoints are needed to clarify therapeutic potential.
Precision medicine approaches represent a promising avenue for intervention. Genetic and epigenetic variations, including polymorphisms in antioxidant enzymes such as SOD2 and GPX1, may influence individual susceptibility to OS-related complications. Integrating multiomic profiling and biomarker panels could enable the identification of women who are most likely to benefit from tailored antioxidant or redox-modulating therapies. Targeted approaches, including Nrf2 activators and mitochondria-specific antioxidants, merit further investigation in high-risk subgroups.
Mechanistic studies focusing on placental biology and fetal programming are also crucial. OS in the placenta not only contributes to maternal complications but may also influence long-term fetal cardiovascular and metabolic health. Advanced in vitro and in vivo placental models, combined with assessments of offspring outcomes, could elucidate key pathways and identify novel therapeutic targets. Emerging interventions, such as nanomedicine and extracellular vesicle- based therapies, offer potential for precise placental targeting but require rigorous preclinical and translational evaluation.
Finally, lifestyle and environmental interventions should not be overlooked. Diet, physical activity, and exposure to environmental pollutants modulate oxidative balance and may interact with genetic predisposition. Future research should explore multifactorial, scalable strategies that integrate nutrition, exercise, and environmental risk reduction, particularly in underrepresented populations and low-resource settings, to mitigate OS and improve obstetric outcomes globally.
Advancing our understanding of OS in obstetric disorders will require coordinated efforts to standardize biomarker assessment, optimize antioxidant and redox-based therapies, employ precision medicine strategies, elucidate placental mechanisms, and incorporate lifestyle and environmental interventions. Such multidimensional approaches have the potential to translate mechanistic insights into effective, individualized interventions that improve both maternal and fetal health.

Conclusion

OS plays a pivotal role in the pathophysiology of obstetric disorders, including pre-eclampsia, gestational diabetes mellitus, fetal growth restriction, and recurrent pregnancy loss. The imbalance between reactive oxygen and nitrogen species and endogenous antioxidant defenses disrupts cellular homeostasis, leading to oxidative damage in maternal, placental, and fetal tissues. This redox imbalance contributes to impaired trophoblast function, endothelial dysfunction, mitochondrial perturbations, and dysregulation of redox- sensitive signaling pathways, which collectively underpin the development and progression of adverse pregnancy outcomes. Understanding these mechanisms is crucial for elucidating the etiology of obstetric complications and for identifying potential therapeutic targets.
Despite advances in characterizing OS biomarkers and molecular pathways, translating these findings into effective clinical interventions remains challenging. Variability in biomarker selection, measurement techniques, and gestational reference ranges limit their reliability as diagnostic or prognostic tools. Similarly, antioxidant-based interventions, including vitamins, trace elements, and nutraceuticals, have demonstrated inconsistent clinical efficacy, highlighting the need for precision-targeted approaches that consider timing, dosage, baseline oxidative status, and patient-specific risk profiles.
Future strategies should integrate mechanistic insights with translational and clinical research, focusing on the placenta as a key regulator of maternal-fetal redox balance. Investigating how OS influences fetal programming, long-term metabolic and cardiovascular health, and intergenerational outcomes will be essential for developing preventive and therapeutic strategies. Additionally, incorporating genetic, epigenetic, and multi-omic profiling may enable personalized interventions tailored to individual susceptibility and OS burden. Lifestyle factors, including diet, physical activity, and environmental exposures, should also be considered as modifiable contributors to oxidative balance and pregnancy outcomes.
In conclusion, OS constitutes a central mediator of obstetric complications, linking molecular dysfunction to adverse clinical outcomes. Advancing maternal and fetal health will require integrated approaches that combine standardized biomarker assessment, mechanistic understanding, precision therapeutics, and lifestyle optimization. By bridging fundamental research and clinical application, future efforts hold the potential to reduce the burden of OS-related pregnancy complications and to inform the development of personalized obstetric care strategies.

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