The effect of maternal nutrition during pregnancy and lactation on rat pup food preferences

Authors

Abstract

AimMaternal nutrition has a profound impact on fetal and neonatal development, influencing long-term health outcomes and behavioral traits such as food preferences. Exposure to specific nutrients during critical developmental windows may shape dietary choices in offspring through neurodevelopmental and epigenetic mechanisms. To determine whether maternal macronutrient composition during pregnancy and lactation affects the food preferences of rat pups, independent of taste and olfactory cues.
MethodsEight pregnant Sprague–Dawley dams were assigned to four dietary groups (standard, high-fat, high-protein, and high-carbohydrate) during pregnancy and lactation. All diets were standardized for taste and smell using garlic and vanilla. Nineteen pups born to these dams were exposed to all four diet types after weaning, and their chow preferences were monitored over two weeks. Weight measurements were recorded for dams and pups. Statistical analyses included the Kruskal–Wallis test with Conover pairwise comparisons and Spearman’s correlation.
ResultsPups showed a significant preference for the same chow type their mothers consumed during gestation and lactation, except in the standard diet group. The highest birth weight was observed in the high-fat group. A significant correlation was found between maternal protein-rich diets and increased birth weight and postnatal weight gain in pups. Among dams, the highest weight gain occurred in the high-carbohydrate group.
ConclusionMaternal nutrition during pregnancy and lactation significantly influences offspring food preferences, even when sensory characteristics are controlled. Addressing suboptimal maternal dietary habits may help mitigate nutrition-related disorders in subsequent generations.

Keywords

Introduction

Maternal nutrition can induce changes in systems associated with appetite control and flavor perception.¹ Excessive maternal nutrition in the perinatal period can predispose offspring to excess food intake and weight gain in childhood and adulthood. In addition to predisposing individuals to generally excessive energy consumption (as shown in animal studies), perinatal exposure to high-fat and/or high-sugar diets has also been reported to increase offspring preference for palatable “junk food.” It has been suggested that this occurs via the mesolimbic reward pathway.² The tastes of foods, fluids, and spices consumed during pregnancy are perceived by the fetus via the amniotic fluid. These tastes subsequently continue to be experienced through the mother’s milk, making it easier for children to accept and enjoy flavors with which they are already familiar during the transition to solid food.³ The ability to perceive tastes begins with the development of the taste and smell systems in utero and the acquisition of early functionality. Since both amniotic fluid and mother’s milk contain molecules originating from the maternal diet, learning the tastes of foods begins in the womb and in early infancy. This early experience forms the basis for the continuous lifelong development of food preferences and is shaped by interactions between biological, social, and environmental factors. Newborns exhibit characteristic taste preferences shortly after birth. While they show positive responses to sweet and umami tastes, they react adversely to bitter and sour tastes. Nutrition can influence gene expression through epigenetic mechanisms, and prenatal/early postnatal exposures may induce lasting biological changes, supporting the plausibility of early-life dietary programming.⁴ These taste preferences may represent a biological drive toward calorie- and protein-rich foods and an aversion to potentially toxic ones.⁵
The first thousand days of life represent a period in which adaptive mechanisms are highly active and growth and development are rapid and critically important. Nutrition is the most important factor supporting this process. Nutrition in the first thousand days of life, encompassing the perinatal and postnatal periods, is of great importance for growth and neurocognitive development. Studies have shown that taste and smell strongly influence food preferences and that these senses develop during intrauterine life. However, the role of food type in food selection when taste and smell are eliminated—or at least equalized—remains unclear. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of maternal nutrition during pregnancy and lactation on food preferences in rat pups.

Materials and Methods

Animal Selection and CareThe rats were obtained from the Adıyaman University Experimental Animals Research Center (Türkiye). The animals received care consistent with European Community ethical guidelines. Dams and their pups constituted the two main study groups. Both the dam and pup groups were allowed ad libitum access to water and food. The environmental temperature was maintained at 22 ± 2 °C, with a 12-hour light/dark cycle and 55% ± 5% humidity. Each type of chow was checked daily; depleted quantities were replenished and remaining amounts were weighed. The amount of each type of chow consumed was calculated as the decrease in the total amount of chow.
The study was performed over a total of eight weeks, consisting of three weeks of pregnancy, three weeks of lactation, and two weeks of ad libitum pup feeding. No anesthesia was administered to any animal, no biochemical analyses were performed, and no specimens were collected. No rats were sacrificed at the end of the experiment; the animals were only observed under experimental conditions.
Dam RatsTwelve female and four male Sprague–Dawley rats were included in the study. Males and females who reached puberty at 7–8 weeks were included. Each female rat was allowed to mate, and those that became pregnant constituted the study groups. Pregnancy was confirmed by vaginal smear. Eight of the 12 rats with confirmed pregnancies were included in the study, while the male rats and four non-pregnant females were excluded from the analysis.
The dams were kept within their assigned groups during pregnancy and were housed with their pups in the postnatal period. Four groups were established: standard chow (Group S), protein-rich chow (Group P), fat-rich chow (Group F), and carbohydrate-rich chow (Group CH). Each group was fed its specific diet, while the control group received standard chow. This feeding pattern was maintained throughout pregnancy and lactation (total of six weeks). The dams were weighed at the beginning of pregnancy, at delivery, and at the end of the postpartum period, and the results were recorded.
Rat PupsFive pups randomly selected from the two dams in each group were included in the study (four pups were included in the protein group). Pups born to each group received their group-specific chow for three weeks until separation from the dams at the end of lactation, after which all four chow types (standard, high-carbohydrate, high-protein, and high-fat) were offered to all 19 pups for two weeks. Because the study focused on chow-type preference, all foods were standardized in terms of taste and smell. Rat pups were weighed at birth and at the end of the study.
Each chow type was checked daily and depleted quantities were replaced. The amount of each chow consumed was calculated by weighing the remaining amount and subtracting it from the original total amount of chow in each group; consumption was then recorded.
The Groups and Chow CharacteristicsThe number of dams and pups in each group and the type of chow provided are shown in Table 1. There were two dams in each group; after delivery, five pups in Groups S, CH, and F and four pups in Group P were included in the study. The analytical composition, vitamins, and trace element contents of the chows used in each group are shown in Supplementary Table 1. All chows were equalized in terms of taste and smell using garlic powder and vanilla. Although garlic and vanilla were added to minimize taste and odor differences among diets, it is acknowledged that rats have highly developed olfactory systems and may still detect subtle distinctions.
Ethical ApprovalThis study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Adıyaman University (Date: 01.02.2019, Decision No: 04).
Statistical AnalysisStudy data were summarized as median, minimum, and maximum values. Since none of the groups followed a normal distribution, comparisons were performed using the Kruskal–Wallis test followed by the Conover pairwise method. Correlations between variables were examined using Spearman’s correlation coefficients. P-values < 0.05 were regarded as statistically significant in all tests. Analyses were performed using IBM SPSS Statistics version 26.0.
Reporting GuidelinesThis study was conducted and reported in accordance with the ARRIVE guidelines.

Results

The birth weights of all pups, their weights at the end of the first and second weeks, and their weight gain are shown in Table 1 as mean ± standard deviation and minimum/maximum values. Pup birth weights, first- and second-week weights, and weekly weight gain were compared between groups. Mean values and standard deviations are shown in Table 1, and median values, intergroup comparisons, and p values are also shown in Table 1. Weights at birth and at the end of the first and second weeks were significantly higher in the study groups than in the control group. Comparisons of postnatal weight gain revealed no significant variation between groups. The highest birth weight was observed in Group F (fat-rich diet), while the lowest birth weight was observed in Group S (standard diet).
Mean ± standard deviation, median, and minimum/maximum values for chow consumption in all groups are shown in Table 2. Chow consumption by groups is presented in Table 2, along with intergroup comparisons. The highest consumption was observed for the protein-rich chow. Examination of chow consumption by groups showed that, with the exception of Group S (control), the chow type given to the dams during pregnancy and lactation represented the pups’ first choice even when all chows were available; this finding was statistically significant (Table 2). Carbohydrate-rich chow was most preferred in Group CH, protein-rich chow was most preferred in Group P, and fat-rich chow was most preferred in Group F.
Spearman correlation analysis between birth weight, weight gain, and chow types showed a correlation between protein-rich chow and both birth weight and weight gain in Groups F and CH (p=0.037).
Mean ± standard deviation and minimum/maximum values for dams’ initial weights, weights at delivery, and postpartum weights are shown in Supplementary Table 2. Dam initial weights, delivery and postpartum weights, and weight gains are presented in Supplementary Table 2, along with comparisons. The dam groups were not homogeneous in terms of initial weight (p=0.024). However, when dams were compared in terms of weight gain during pregnancy and the postpartum period, the greatest—and statistically significant—weight gain was observed in the CH group. The lowest weight gain was in the fat group, and the difference between this group and all other groups was also statistically significant (p = 0.023). Spearman correlation analysis applied to initial weight and weights during pregnancy and postpartum in the dam groups revealed no statistically significant associations (p>0.05). Similarly, Spearman correlation analysis revealed no statistically significant associations for dam groups in terms of birth weight, first-week weight gain, second-week weight gain, and overall weight gain (p>0.05).

Discussion

Previous studies have shown that fetal taste perception develops in utero through maternal diet and influences later food preferences ^3,6,7. However, food preference is a complex, multifactorial process. We hypothesized that food type is one such factor, and our findings suggest that pups exposed to a specific maternal chow during pregnancy and lactation consumed more of the same chow.We therefore concluded that food type may affect food preference. This may also contribute to disorders potentially associated with nutrition, and it may support the avoidance, control, or prevention of such diseases. Obesity is a societal disease resulting from factors such as low physical activity, high caloric intake, and sugar-rich foods. It is also a major contributor to several cardiometabolic diseases.⁶ An individual’s well-being is widely regarded as being influenced by genetic factors as well as environmental factors and lifestyle.^8,9 Fetal programming occurs when the optimal environment for fetal development is impaired by deleterious factors. Fetal programming refers to adaptive epigenetic changes in various genes in response to harmful stimuli.¹⁰ Although the mechanisms involved in fetal programming are not fully understood, it may be regarded as a mechanism through which the organism maintains homeostasis in inadequate environments. Such responses can become phenotypically persistent and may contribute to future health problems.¹¹ Intrauterine fetal programming due to insufficient or excessive nutrition may predispose individuals to metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes, obesity, and cardiovascular diseases.¹² In the present study, however, we observed pups for only two weeks following the dietary exposure, and it is unclear how persistent the observed food preferences would be later in life. As interaction with the external environment increases with age, food preferences may also change.
In their prospective study, Brion et al.¹³ evaluated gestational diet, postnatal maternal and paternal dietary preferences, child dietary intake, and obesity. They measured energy and macronutrient (carbohydrate, protein, and fat) intake 47 months and 10 years after birth and investigated children’s body composition at ages nine and 11 years. They categorized dietary characteristics by macronutrient composition and concluded that macronutrient preference during pregnancy affects a child’s macronutrient preference and that the child’s preference resembles the mother’s preference during pregnancy. Chen et al.¹⁴ investigated maternal macronutrient intake and neonatal abdominal obesity and linked high protein intake to lower abdominal obesity, but did not consider the child’s food preference. One study examining the extent to which feeding habits are influenced by family members (mother, father, and grandparents) reported a moderate correlation between family and child dietary preferences. However, it also concluded that the child’s feeding habits were more strongly associated with the mother than with other family members and that this relationship was associated with both pre- and postnatal dietary habits.¹⁵ In their study in which mothers’ macronutrient intake was assessed during pregnancy and for five years thereafter, Murrin et al.¹⁶ observed a significant association between maternal blood sugar and pre- and postnatal saturated fatty acid levels and fat deposition in children. Thompson et al.¹⁷ investigated causes of excessive weight gain at early ages and followed infants until 18 months. They concluded that an age-inappropriate diet can shape infant appetite, food preferences, and metabolism, increasing energy intake and infant weight-for-height and thereby increasing long-term obesity risk. In their meta-analysis, Wang et al.¹⁸ showed that parental diet preferences were weakly correlated with children’s diet. Arenz et al.¹⁹ reported that breastfeeding provides some degree of protection against childhood obesity. In their review, Owen et al.²⁰ considered factors possibly associated with childhood obesity and concluded that breastfeeding reduced the risk of childhood obesity. In the present study, dams and pups were kept in a homogeneous environment, which differs from clinical prospective human studies. Pups’ chow consumption patterns were consistent with the chow types to which dams were exposed during pregnancy and lactation. Interestingly, the control group given standard chow consumed more carbohydrate- and protein-containing foods, although the foods were equalized in terms of taste and smell.
Animal studies have reported that high-carbohydrate and high-fat diets cause overweight in both dams and pups.²¹ Moser et al.²² reported the greatest weight gain with a high-fat diet without exercise, while Gordon et al.²³ found higher body weights with maternal high-fat diet and sedentary lifestyle. Carlin et al.²⁴ observed a mild increase in pup weight and insulin with a high-protein diet but no effect on adult macronutrient preference. In the Singapore-based GUSTO study, no association was found between maternal macronutrient intake and birth weight.²⁵
In our study, birth weights were highest in the fat-rich diet group and lowest in the standard chow group, while early postnatal weights were similar. The greatest maternal weight gain occurred in the carbohydrate group, and both dam and pup weights were lowest in the standard chow group.

Limitations

This study has several limitations. The sample size was small, and despite attempts to standardize taste and odor, rats’ sensitive olfaction may have influenced chow selection. In addition, metabolic, hormonal, and neurobehavioral mechanisms were not evaluated, and pup sex was not considered. Therefore, while maternal diet during pregnancy and lactation may affect early chow preferences, larger and mechanistic studies are needed to confirm long-term dietary programming effects.

Conclusion

While our findings suggest rat pups prefer their mothers’ perinatal diet, limitations—caloric differences, olfactory cues, early exposure, and unequal group sizes—prevent firm conclusions on long-term dietary programming.
In conclusion, nutritional preference is multifactorial and shaped by maternal diet before and after birth. Improving maternal nutrition may reduce adverse outcomes in future generations.

Declarations

Abbreviations

ARRIVE: animal research: reporting of in vivo experiments
CH: carbohydrate-rich diet
F: fat-rich diet
P: protein-rich diet
S: standard diet

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About This Article

Received:

January 15, 2026

Accepted:

April 24, 2026

Published Online:

April 29, 2026